Racial Microaggressions

Contributors:
Cirleen DeBlaere, Terrence A. Jordan II, and David G. Zelaya, Georgia State University

Sue et al. (2007) described racial microaggressions as ‘‘brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults towards people of color” (p. 273). Additionally, Sue and colleagues developed several categories of racial microaggressions – microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. Microassaults, thought to be intentional and conscious, are hostile behaviors that aim or are used to harm racial/ethnic minority individuals through verbal attacks, avoidance, or discrimination (e.g., “referring to someone as ‘colored’” or “displaying a swastika,” p. 274). Microinsults, often unconscious, represent indirect insults that degrade a person’s racial heritage (e.g., “A store owner following a customer around the store,” p. 276). Similarly unconscious, microinvalidations are communications that render invisible or negate racial/ethnic minority peoples’ experiences, cognitions, and emotions related to their race/ethnicity (e.g., “When I look at you, I don’t see color,” p. 276). Sue et al. (2007) also noted that all three forms of microaggressions can occur at systemic levels and term these incidents environmental microaggressions. 

In addition to environmental microaggressions, eight microaggression themes have been identified (Sue et al., 2007). These include (a) ascribing intelligence based on race [Ascription of Intelligence], (b) preferential treatment of White consumers [Second Class Citizen], (c) assumption of White values as the epitome [Pathologizing Cultural Values/Communication Styles], (d) assuming a person of color is dangerous based on their race [Criminality/ Assumption of Criminal Status], (e) assuming people of color are foreign-born [Alien in Own Land], (f ) the denial of the cultural and racial experiences of people of color when White individuals do not acknowledge race [Color Blindness], (g) invalidations of the role of race in life achievements [Myth of Meritocracy], and (h) the denial of racial biases [Denial of Individual Racism] (Sue et al., 2007). Microaggressions have been linked to psychological distress, anxiety, and depression among racial/ethnic minority populations (Nadal, 2011; Sue, 2010; Sue, Capodilupo, & Holder, 2008; Torres-Harding, Andrade, & Romero Diaz, 2012). Although this review focuses on racial microaggressions, it should be noted that microaggressions related to gender and sexual orientation have also been discussed (e.g., Balsam, 2011; Sue, 2010) and that consideration of racial microaggressions should occur in the context of other relevant social identities (Cole, 2009).

Resources:
DeAngelis, T. (2009). Unmasking ‘racial micro aggressions’. Monitor on Psychology, 40. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/02/microaggression.aspx

Sue, D. W., & Rivera, D. (2010, October) Racial microaggressions in everyday life: A new view on racism, sexism, and heterosexism. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/microaggressions-in-everyday-life/201010/racial-microaggressions-in-everyday-life 

Prevalence
Researchers have noted that because microaggressions are subtle and ubiquitous, they can be overlooked or dismissed making determination of the actual prevalence of racial microaggressions difficult to ascertain (Sue et al., 2007). However, in studies investigating experiences of racial discrimination, analogous to microaggressions, a sizable proportion (i.e., approximately 25% or more) of racial/ethnic minority participants report having experienced some form of race-based discrimination in the past year (e.g., Burgess, Ding, Hargreaves, van Ryn, & Phelan, 2008; Pérez, Fortuna, & Lisa, 2008; Tran, Lee, & Burgess, 2010), and a majority (i.e., 60% or more) of

African American/Black individuals reported experiencing racial discrimination over their lifetimes (e.g., Krieger, Kosheleva, Waterman, Chen, & Koenen, 2011). For example, with a subsample of 2,444 racial/ethnic minority people, Burgess et al. (2008) found that approximately 46% of African American, 40% American Indian, 47% Southeast Asian, and 45% Latina/o individuals reported experiencing racial discrimination at least once monthly or yearly.

Resource:
Booker, K. (2013, April). Asian Americans often feel racial ‘microaggressions’. Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved from http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2013/04/asian-americans-often-feel-racial-microaggressions

Identification/Assessment Strategies

This section describes several measures that have been developed to assess the frequency and/or stressfulness of racial microaggression experiences in the lives or counseling experiences of people of color. All measures have evidenced good reliability and validity with racially/ethnically diverse groups.

Inventory of Microaggressions against Black Individuals (IMABI)
The IMABI (Mercer, Zieigler-Hill, Wallace, & Hayes, 2011) is a 14-item measure intended to assess the frequency and impact of racial microaggressions, particularly microinsults and microinvalidations, against Black individuals. Each item of the IMABI is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 0 = This has never happened to me; 1 = This event happened but I was not upset; 2 = This event happened and I was slightly upset; 3 = This event happened and I was moderately upset; and 4 = This event happened to me and I was extremely upset). Items are averaged to obtain a total scale score. Higher scores indicate greater frequency and impact of microaggressions. A sample item is “Someone claimed that there is no racism or racial/ethnic discrimination anymore even though there is still a lot in our society.”

Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS)
The REMS (Nadal, 2011) is a 45-item self-report inventory used to assess the frequency of racial microaggressions in daily interactions. The REMS consists of 6 subscales (i.e., Assumption of Inferiority; Second-Class Citizen and Assumption of Criminality; Microinvalidations; Exocticization and Assumptions of Similarity; Environmental Microaggressions; and Workplace & School Microaggressions). The REMS utilizes a dichotomous rating scale of 1 (I did not experience this event) to 2 (I experienced this event). Items are averaged to obtain total and subscale scores. Higher scores indicate greater perceived frequency of racial microaggressions. A sample item is “Someone assumed that I would not be intelligent because of my race” (i.e., an item on the Assumption of Inferiority subscale). 

Racial Microaggressions Scale (RMAS)
The RMAS (Torres-Harding, Andrade, & Romero Diaz, 2012) is a 32-item scale used to assess the frequency and impact of racial microaggressions. The RMAS is comprised of six subscales (i.e., Invisibility, Criminality, Lowing Achieving/Undesirable Culture, Sexualization, Foreigner/Not Belonging, Environmental).  For each item, respondents indicate how often they have encountered a particular racial microaggression on a 4-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 0 = never; 1 = a little/rarely; 2 = sometimes/a moderate amount; 3 = often/frequently). If a microaggression is endorsed, respondents report how stressful, upsetting, or bothersome the experience was for them on a 3-point Likert-type scale (0 = not at all; 1 = a little; 2 = moderate level; 3 = high level). Items are averaged to obtain each subscale score. A sample item is “Because of my race, people suggest that I am not a ‘true’ American” (i.e., an item on the Foreigner/Not Belonging subscale).

Racial Microaggressions in Counseling Scale (RMCS)
The RMCS (Constantine, 2007) is a 10-item self-report measure used to assess a client’s perception of the presence and impact of racial microaggressions in counseling. The RMCS uses a 3-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 0 = This never happened; 1 = This happened but it did not bother me; 2 = This happened and I was bothered by it). Items are averaged to obtain a total scale score. Higher scores indicate greater frequency and impact of microaggressions. A sample item is, “My counselor avoided discussing or addressing cultural issues in our session(s).”

Intervention Strategies

General Considerations
There is a paucity of empirical research investigating specific intervention strategies to address the racial microaggression experiences of racial/ethnic minority clients. However, several recommendations have been made for working with racial and ethnic minority clients. These interventions are grounded in the understanding that racial microaggressions should be recognized and addressed (Hall, 2001). At the foundation of all recommendations is the ethical responsibility of counselors to be multiculturally competent (American Counseling Association, 2005). This requires that counselors develop treatment plans that are inclusive of clients’ cultural values and contexts (Dass-Brailsford, 2012). It also necessitates that counselors be willing and able to discuss cultural similarities and differences between the counselor and client. Counselors are encouraged to, “explore meanings of cultural differences and similarities rather than to assume that clients will bring a particular experience or perspective to therapy because of their gender, ethnicity, or race” (LaRoche & Maxie, 2003, p. 185). 

Resources:
ACA Code of Ethics 
http://www.counseling.org/Resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf

AMCD Multicultural Counseling Competencies https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/competencies/multicultural-and-social-justice-counseling-competencies.pdf?sfvrsn=20

APA Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists
 http://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/policy/multicultural-guidelines.aspx?item=2

Specific Interventions
Beyond these general guidelines, some authors have offered specific recommendations for interventions that may be effective when working with clients of color and when addressing their experiences of oppression. For example, given the more collectivistic nature of many racial/ethnic minority cultures, the importance of outreach to the families and cultural communities of racial and ethnic minority clients has been highlighted (e.g., LaFromboise, Trimble, & Mohatt, 1990; Murry & Mosidi, 1993). Hall (2001) discussed the mobilization of community assets (e.g., community leaders, churches) as an intervention for use in addressing racial microaggressions. DeBlaere et al. (2013) noted the importance of specifically assessing racial microaggressions in counseling. These authors also discussed the potential benefits of participating in activism as a means of combating oppression. Activism, with its ability to promote agency (Friedman & Leaper, 2010) and empower clients (Szymanksi & Owens, 2009), may enhance clients’ mental health. Thus, it is important for counselors to be aware of activities and organizations relevant to racial/ethnic minority clients and to facilitate participation when appropriate.

When considering how to address microaggressions, the following have been identified as important: (1) contextualizing microaggressions within larger systems of oppression, thus allowing clients to externalize the origin of their discriminatory experiences (e.g., Crocker & Major, 1989; DeBlaere & Bertsch, 2013); (2) including microaggression experiences in case conceptualizations so as to assist clients with making connections between their microaggression experiences and their presenting concerns; (3) integrating into counseling research findings that support a consistent negative link between discrimination experiences and psychological symptomatology so as to normalize client struggles; and (4) assessing and ameliorating potential negative scripts that clients may have developed as a result of internalizing microaggressions (Szymanski & Moffitt, 2012). Several sources also discuss the importance of social support (e.g., Szymanksi & Moffitt, 2012; Williams, 2005). Williams (2005) identified support-seeking as a means of “psychological resistance to oppression” (p. 281). Finally, bibliotherapy has been offered as an effective therapeutic intervention for microaggression experiences for racial/ethnic minority populations (e.g., DeBlaere & Bertsch, 2013; McCoy & McKay, 2006). Culturally-affirming bibliotherapy is thought to have multiple benefits such as promoting a more positive self-concept, encouraging discussion of topics in counseling that might not have otherwise been shared due to shame or guilt, facilitating for exploration of prospective problem-solving strategies, and allowing racial/ethnic minority clients to connect with legacies of social justice activism (Holman, 1996; McCoy & McKay, 2006; Williams, Frame, & Greene, 1999).

Lastly, it is important to collaborate with clients to develop ways of coping with racial microaggressions. In a qualitative study with racial/ethnic minority mental health professionals, Hernández, Carranza, and Almeida (2010) identified self-care, connecting with one’s spirituality, confronting the aggressor, and seeking mentoring as adaptive responses to microaggressions. Because racial/ethnic minority clients utilize subtle cues to gauge their counselor’s multicultural attitudes, displaying racial/ethnic minority art and reading materials can be a relatively simple, but persuasive, way to communicate cultural sensitivity (Thompson, Bazile, & Akbar, 2004).

Resource:
Psychological Treatment of Ethnic Minority Populations http://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/brochures/treatment-minority.pdf

REFERENCES

American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA code of ethics. Retrieved from http://www.counseling.org/ Resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf

Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions  Scale. Cultural Diversity And Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(2), 163-174. doi:10.1037/a0023244

Burgess, D. J., Ding, Y., Hargreaves, M., van Ryn, M., & Phelan, S. (2008). The association between perceived discrimination and underutilization of needed medical and mental health care in a multi-ethnic community sample. Journal of Health Care for the Poor And Underserved, 19(3), 894-911. doi:10.1353/hpu.0.0063

Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170-180. doi:10.1037/a0014564

Constantine, M. G. (2007). Racial microaggressions against African American clients in cross-racial counseling relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(1), 1-16. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.1.1

Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608-630. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608

Dass-Brailsford, P. (2012). Culturally sensitive therapy with low-income ethnic minority clients: An empowering intervention. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 42(1), 37-44. doi:10.1007/s10879-011-9190-4

DeBlaere, C., & Bertsch, K. N. (2013). Perceived sexist events and psychological distress of sexual minority women of color: The moderating role of womanism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 167-178. doi:10.1177/0361684312470436

DeBlaere, C., Brewster, M. E., Bertsch, K. N., DeCarlo, A. L., Kegel, K. A., & Presseau, C. D. (2013). The protective power of collective action for sexual minority women of color: An investigation of multiple discrimination experiences and psychological distress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(1), 20-32. doi:10.1177/0361684313493252

Friedman, C., & Leaper, C. (2010). Sexual-minority college women’s experiences with discrimination: Relations with identity and collective action. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(2), 152-164. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01558.x

Hall, G. (2001). Psychotherapy research with ethnic minorities: Empirical, ethical, and conceptual issues. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(3), 502-510. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.69.3.502

Hernández, P., Carranza, M., & Almeida, R. (2010). Mental health professionals’ adaptive responses to racial microaggressions: An exploratory study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41(3), 202-209. doi:10.1037/a0018445

Holman, W. (1996). The power of poetry: Validating ethnic identity through a bibliotherapeutic intervention with a Puerto Rican adolescent. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 13(5), 371-383. doi:10.1007/BF01875855

Krieger, N., Kosheleva, A., Waterman, P. D., Chen, J. T., & Koenen, K. (2011). Racial discrimination, psychological distress, and self-rated health among US-born and foreign-born Black Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 101(9), 1704-1713. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300168

LaFromboise, T. D., Trimble, J. E., & Mohatt, G. V. (1990). Counseling intervention and American Indian tradition: An integrative approach. The Counseling Psychologist, 18(4), 628-654. doi:10.1177/0011000090184006


LaRoche, M. J., & Maxie, A. (2003). Ten considerations in addressing cultural differences in psychotherapy. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(2), 180-186. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.34.2.180

McCoy, H., & McKay, C. (2006). Preparing social workers to identify and integrate culturally affirming bibliotherapy into treatment. Social Work Education, 25(7), 680-693. doi:10.1080/02615470600905895

Mercer, S. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., Wallace, M., & Hayes, D. M. (2011). Development and initial validation of the inventory of microaggressions against Black individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 457-469. doi:10.1037/a0024937

Murry, E., & Mosidi, R. (1993). Career development counseling for African Americans: An appraisal of the obstacles and intervention strategies. Journal of Negro Education, 62(4), 441-447. doi:10.2307/2295515

Nadal, K. L. (2011). The racial and ethnic microaggressions scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 470-480. doi:10.1037/a0025193

Pérez, D., Fortuna, L., & Alegría, M. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of everyday discrimination among U.S. Latinos. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(4), 421-433. doi:10.1002/jcop.20221

Sue, D. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Sue, D., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. B. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans.  Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3), 329-336. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329

Sue, D., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. B., Nadal, K. L., Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271-286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271

Szymanski, D. M., & Moffitt, L. B. (2012). Sexism and heterosexism. In N. A. Fouad, J. A. Carter, & L. M. Subich (Eds.), APA handbook of counseling psychology, vol. 2: Practice, interventions,  and applications (pp. 361-390). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/13755-015

Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group-level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(2), 197-205. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01489.x

Thompson, V., Bazile, A., & Akbar, M. (2004). African Americans’ perceptions of psychotherapy and psychotherapists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35(1), 19-26. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.1.19

Torres-Harding, S. R., Andrade, A. R., & Romero Diaz, C. E. (2012). The racial microaggressions scale (RMAS): A new scale to measure experiences of racial microaggressions in people of color. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(2), 153-164. doi:10.1037/a0027658

Tran, A. T., Lee, R. M., & Burgess, D. J. (2010). Perceived discrimination and substance use in Hispanic/Latino, African-born Black, and Southeast Asian immigrants. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 226-236. doi:10.1037/a0016344

Williams, C. (2005). Counseling African American women: Multiple identities--Multiple constraints. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83(3), 278-283. doi: 0.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00343.x

Williams, C., Frame, M., & Green, E. (1999). Counseling groups for African American women: A focus on spirituality. Journal for Specialists In Group Work, 24(3), 260-273. doi:10.1080/01933929908411435

Published: December 2014
Updated: August 2016

American Counseling Association

2461 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite 300, Alexandria, Va. 22314 | 800-347-6647 | (fax) 800-473-2329

My ACA     Join Now      Contact Us     Privacy Policy     Terms of Use     © All Rights Reserved.